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THE STRUGGLES OF SECESSION
by
Jim Butler
It is October, 1863 in a small, rural, working-class town in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley of Georgia. The days of hearts beating to the sounds of war drums is gone. Gone are the lavish suppers and barbeques. Forgotten are the long winded speeches advocating secession from the Union. The call to duty to defend home and hearth is quickly replaced by the cries of the Yeoman dying on the fields of Virginia and Pennsylvania and the pleas of their dear ones at home. Vacant as the call to arms to defend Southern Rights are the vacant bellies of the soldier’s loved ones on their own homestead. Too greedy and craven to fight for their own peculiar institutions, the wealthy, Planter class sends their poor brethren to do their bidding. While some men sit home with exemptions seemingly only procured by those of means, the poor Yeoman must join or be conscripted. Even more overwhelming is the fact that the desire for cotton profits replaces the rational and obvious urgency to grow produce for the people and soldiers protecting the South and her industries. Prior to the war the Yeoman seemed content with their lot in life. Yeomen knew they would never own slaves nor hold political office due to the caste they were born to, yet seemed happy with this status quo. But, now, in late 1863, the Yeoman caste grows weary of fighting, starving and dying for the privileged class of the South. They turn out in droves to vote and cast out the pro-Davis Democrats by a five to one margin. Replacing them with Mechanics and Workers Organization’s candidates. Half of the Confederate army is gone without leave. Inflation, taxes, impressments, conscription, corruption, starvation and death are on the doorsteps of the home front. The war is clearly not just lost on the battlefield, but in the hearts and the minds of its People as well. Setbacks at Gettysburg and Vicksburg seem to sink many hopes, but a recent victory at Chickamauga and siege at Chattanooga is buoying some spirits. But, it seems that this may all be too late as the fate of the South may already be sealed at home and on the battlefield.
Using Stewart County, Georgia as a typical example of a rural, Southern town the Yeoman class consisted of primarily farmers, laborers and mechanics. Laborers included many trades like brick masons, shingle makers, blacksmiths, leather workers, etc. Roughly half the population was black, slaves and less than 1% free blacks. Half of the overall population was children. Only 10% of whites owned slaves. Six households had more than 100 slaves. Less than 4% of the whites owned more than 10 slaves. Sixty percent of the white families owned more than 3 acres. Average Real and Personal property averaged $1979 per person. Poor whites made up close to half the valley’s white population. Wealthy whites controlled high political office mainly by their wealth. Planters used money to buy votes, sometimes known as ‘penning’.
“On the day before the election, campaign workers would round up men off the streets, lodge them in local hotels, get them drunk, and then march them to the polls the next morning. Obviously, these men felt that their right to vote meant very little in elections that primarily represented upper-class interests.”1
But, as Southern power began to consolidate in the hand of a few and the Yeoman class saw that economic advancement was more difficult, cracks began to grow in the scheme of planter dominance. War and caste would play an inevitable role in the struggle for political power during the war.
“Antislavery sentiment never completely died in the South despite efforts to wipe it out. Some whites continued to view slavery as a moral evil, others opposed it on economic grounds, and still others opposed slavery simply because they were too poor ever to own slaves themselves. Whatever the reason, antislavery feeling was on the rise in the late 1850s.”1
Stewart County produced 25,902 bales of cotton in 1860 and had 9 manufacturing establishments employing 44 employees. Soil erosion and a lack of a railroad were already economic hurdles for Stewart County before the war had started. But, cotton was still king and the major driving commodity of the fifth largest cotton producing county in Georgia. The onset of Secession was greeted by some with skepticism while others rushed to the call for glory and Cause. Stewart County quickly raised a company of men for the 2nd Georgia, the “Stewart Grays” who were quickly rushed to Virginia. The county followed with still more volunteers and conscripts as it sent off men to serve with the 17th, Georgia, 21st Georgia, “Stewart Infantry, 31st Georgia, “Bartow Guards”, 46th Georgia, “Zollicoffers’ Guard” and the 3rd Georgia Cavalry, “Rawson’s Rangers” with all but the latter two going to fight in the Army of Northern Virginia. The latter two with the Army of Tennessee.
By Oct 1863, Stewart County had already sent 633 men to war. With 83 (13%) dead from disease, 48 (8%) killed in battle and 74 (12%) wounded or disabled from disease. The missing/deserted numbered 45 (7%), 34 had transferred (5%) and 18 (3%) had been captured. Only 269 (43%) of the men were still fit and active for duty. Conscription was still a problem for most men aged 18-40 years old. Without the means to get an exemption, signing up or become conscripted seemed likely. Conscription agents seemed to have no scruples when it came to even conscripted men not fit to weave baskets while walking by able-bodied men who had exemptions or owned more than twenty slaves. Many resisted Confederate conscription as much as possible. Some deserters even formed armed and mounted bands of partisans. Signing up for State defense also was a way out of CSA conscription. Some men could supply substitutes or even bribe officials for an exemption. Bribing surgeons who are to sign leave papers due to disability, corrupt conscription agents, or local Judges or other officials could all be a way out of military service. However, by late 1863, inflation and demand drove the prices of these exemptions to over $800 or more. A price that most Yeoman could little afford.
Exemptions were extended to key Government officials and war related occupations. Riverboats pilots, telegraph operators and certain skilled industrial workers could receive exemptions. Eventually some jobs, like teamsters, were no longer exempted and slaves began to fill these roles previously held by whites. Exemptions to men holding more than twenty slaves also were exempted. But, this odious law awakened an angry spirit in the poor who resented the twenty-slave law.
Some men avoided military service by getting elected as a county official. Many men fled to Florida behind Union lines. Some even enlisting in the Union Navy. Serving in State service or in a Home Guard unit might also get you an exemption from CSA service. But, most nagging was the twenty slave law which seemed to solidify the tenant of a “Rich Man’s” war.
“to git you pupt up and go to fight for their infurnal negroes and after you do there fighting
you may kiss there hine parts for o they care.”1
An Alabama farmer
Inflation had devalued the currency in rapid fashion. Contracted wages, relief monies and Impressment pay rates did not keep up with inflation and made things more difficult for all. Corn in March of 1862 had sold for $1.10 a bushel and by Oct 1863 it was $5.00 a bushel. Bacon which had sold for .40 a pound in early 1862 was now almost $2.00 a pound by late 1863. Blockaded good like coffee was selling at over $200 a pound by late 1863. Blockaded goods included flour, sugar, spices, coffee, tea, dyes, cotton cards, rum, laudanum and other medicines and textiles. Certain items were in low supply as they were needed for the army. These included leather, salt, hemp and grain for distilled liquor or beer. Despite these impacts on supply, people of means still had ways to procure blockaded items thru speculators who had ties to smugglers.
Inflation coupled with the blockade or the excise of the blockade drove speculation and desperation out of control.
“The Columbus Relief Association wrote to the Confederate secretary of war that ‘heartless extortioners’ were ‘ advancing the prices of all provisions to such rates as to place them beyond the reach of the laboring class and the families of absent soldiers.’”1
Speculators came in many stripes and forms. From men selling inflated, smuggled goods, to men who bought up those goods to drive the prices even higher. From government contractors who cheated on wages, to quartermasters who sold goods meant for the army to the public. From Relief Agents who sold the goods meant for the poor, to Impressment Agents who sold goods meant for the soldiers at the front, there seemed no end to the corruption.
“Those who engaged in profiteering were ‘by far greater enemies to the South and do more to injure her cause than ten time their number of Yankees in the field.’”1
Governor Joe Brown tried to make laws against speculation and also tried to limit profits and prices on certain goods. All too little avail. Goods hoarded by speculators included drugs like chloroform, morphine and quinine. Cotton cards were also a valued item. Fabrics, dyes, leather, coffee, tea, spices, sugar and wheat flour were also in short supply. But, many people became creative and found substitutes for these products. Distillation of liquor was also illegal in the Confederacy, but this prohibition was largely ignored. The biggest problem was when the planters refused to grow foodstuffs. The one thing that was in short supply by this time was new recruits. Half of the army was gone without leave or deserted.
Deserters took several different forms. Some had been wounded or sick on the front and given a ‘sick leave’, but had stayed past their leave by weeks or even months. Some even managed to find ways to bribe officials to extend leaves. A few may actually be on furlough or paroled. Still others just left their post and never returned to service. The Georgia House demanded that local officials, militia and Sheriffs begin to enforce the law and bring in deserters. The State also requested that the Confederate Government reimburse the State for the expense to find and transport deserters. Slaves are to be called on to take over certain skilled positions so as to free up white men to be conscripted. Unproductive Enlistment officers are also to be returned to their regiments.
“ It was not uncommon for deserters and draft dodgers (often called ‘tories’ and ‘lay-outs’_ to band together in remote areas for better protection against those sent to retrieve them. Local sympathizers supplied these men with food and clothing and did what they could to throw pursuers off the track.”1
Many locals were quite open in their support of local deserters. So much so, that CSA Conscription officers found it difficult to do their job in many areas. Men of the Third Georgia Regiment from Stewart County, openly declared they had no intention of returning to the army. In Georgia, loitering deserters had become a problem for the State.
“A person who has travelled over the country to any considerable extent, cannot have failed to
Observe the vast number of persons in the uniform of Confederate officers and soldiers, who crowd
our railroad cars, and fill every hotel on our lines of passage. Many of these persons are believed to
be neglecting duty, and attending to speculation, and other private interests, or pleasure. So who are
not in commission no doubt wear Confederate uniform to enable them to avoid enrollment as conscripts.”2
Journal of the Georgia House – Nov, 5th 1863
There was one clever way to be exempted for some men of Georgia. Jefferson Davis called for each State to call up local men for State defense. Georgia was called upon to produce 8,000 recruits for the task. By the end of 1863, Georgia had over 18,000 men enlisted in militias for local defense. This also allowed for an exemption from Confederate service. Additionally, the State House issued a statement that all State officers were also exempted from State service if so needed at home. Others who were exempted included blacksmiths, millers, tanners, shoemakers, county officials and key industrial workers. The exemption for men with twenty or more slaves was universally met with disdain by the poor Yeoman. The pickings for Confederate conscription officers were growing thin. In the last 6 month of 1863, Stewart County only produced 14 more conscripts for the 2nd GA (2), 21st GA (10) and 46th GA (2). 7
Well, the wages of a Confederate soldier certainly weren’t helping to swell the ranks. The Georgia House did propose a pay raise to make up for the rampant inflation. Officers pay was proposed a 25% increase and enlisted pay for privates was to increase to $22 per month. Still hardly able to keep up with the inflation rate! The cries and pleas from their loved ones were far more pressing than the meager wage or any please of duty or honor to the Cause. Some wives wrote to the Governor of Georgia and pleaded they give their husband an exemption or a transfer to State service. Wives made claims that their husband was the only bread winner and means of support. Still others feared slave rebellions to the point of sheer paranoia. They demanded their husbands be returned home to protect against any insurrection. The suffering of loved ones forced the hand of many a valiant soldier to return home fearing if their loved ones died then what point was life anyways.
“It will not only be necessary to clothe our naked troops while they are in the army, but it is an
imperative duty which the people of Georgia owe it to them, to see that their families do not
suffer for the neccessaries of life, in their absence. While I am no advocate for supporting them in
idleness, and hold that it is the duty of every man, woman and child in the State, able to work, to
labor with all their strength to support themselves and those dependent upon them, I know it is
impossible for a woman, at the present high prices of provisions, to support herself and children,
by her labor. Many of our soldiers who are almost destitute of property, have responded nobly to
their country’s call, and have endured an amount of fatigue, hardship and danger, to which those at
home are strangers, while their wives and children, and the widows and orphans of the slain, have
been supported upon the most scanty allowance, or left to suffer for the necessaries of life. This should
never be so.”2
Journal of the Georgia House – Nov 5th, 1863
The State levied a 10% tax per annum on the people of Georgia to help supply for the relief of the people and for providing for the army in the field. Stewart County levied taxes on personal property at three times the normal rate to help in relief of soldier’s families. In 1863, the Northeast part of the state was hit by very poor crop production due to an early frost. Refugees fleeing to the state also burdened the resources of the state. By this time, Stewart County had 88 widows or children of deceased men, 183 women and 289 children that were dependent upon disabled soldiers or men in service with a total of 731 beneficiaries. Stewart County was issued $21,788 for relief which averaged almost $30 per dependent. Relief agencies issued devalued Confederate currency, food, salt and other supplies. By the end of 1864, half of Georgia’s state budget was being spent of relief efforts.
While Relief Agencies were trying to issue supplies to those in need, Impressment Agents were out seizing goods for the State and for the Confederate armies. Governor Brown called for the people of Georgia to openly resist CSA agents who were impressing goods. However, State agents were still authorized to confiscate goods needed for the army. Tax in Kind collected 10% of all good produced. This included pork, wheat, corn, wool and all other produce and grains. Horses, leather, metals and other items were strictly reserved for military use and could be confiscated at any time. One Impressment Agent was shot by an 80 year old man when he attempted to impress his horse. Many Impressment Agents were unscrupulous speculators who took the Impressed goods and sold them on the black market for their own profit. Still others, pretended to be Impressment Agents and illegally seized goods from the people. The State of Georgia made impersonation of an Impressment Agent a felony. Legitimate Impressment Agents were to post their name and powers granted in three of the most prominent public places or in the newspaper before they could begin Impressments. There are even accounts in the Chattahoochee Valley of armed bands of deserters chasing off Impressment and Conscription Officers.
Conscription Officers were scraping the bottom of the barrel by late 1863. With most able-bodied men of conscription age either already in service or exempted from service, it left few other men to be conscripted. However, this did not stop Conscription Officers from conscripting men who were truly not fit for duty. Epilepsy, cancer, and other ailments did not deter many Conscription Officers from hauling these poor souls off to the war. Kate Cumming tells of one young boy carried off by Conscription Officers while he suffered from a cancer that had already eaten an eye out of its socket. Bribery also carried some weight with many Conscription Officers, if they could pay enough to to keep the Officer happy. In many cases this extortion, and not actual conscription, was the Officers goal.
“Conscription officers were among the most detested men in the South…the popinjays employed as enrolling officers…delight in harassing and putting to expense everybody.”1
John Witner of Troup County in a letter to Gen. Howell Cobb
Impressment Agents also played havoc on the people. Despite offering ‘just compensation’, the people rarely agreed upon the rates as they did not keep up with inflation. Many agents paid in promissory notes that were nearly impossible to use. Many agents were also corrupt and sold goods on the side for their own profits. To make things worse, there were imposter agents who duped their victims out of goods.
“This problem became so bad in Georgia that the General Assembly mandated ten years’ imprisonment for anyone engaged in confiscation without authority to do so. Governor Brown favored an additional punishment of ‘thirty nine lashes on the bare back,’ but the legislature thought imprisonment enough.”1
Although impressments for the State were conducted with the State legislature’s approval, Governor Brown called for open opposition to Confederate Impressment. Opposition to Confederate impressment in some areas grew so widespread that bands of armed deserters would drive off their agents. The poor still felt that impressments were unduly burdening them and that the Planter class was not supplying their fair share.
Cotton was still king during the war and remained profitable throughout the war. So much so, that planters refused to grow foodstuffs to feed the people and soldiers of the South. How ironic that their greed for cotton was dooming the cause for which protected its institutions. The Confederate government made meager attempts to get planters to grow foodstuffs, but these attempts were not enforced regulations and thus largely ignored. The Georgia General Assembly attempted to regulate the production of cotton by imposing a tax on seed. But this did not pass, as most of the Assembly were planters.
“Whether trade, manufacturing, or transportation, most of the valley’s economic activity was directly or indirectly driven by cotton. Rising prices reflected a huge demand for southern cotton. Much of the valley’s cotton made its way to New England textile mills through commission firms like Hall and DeBlois of Columbus. The agency purchased so much cotton for the Lowell mills in Massachusetts that its storage building became known locally as the ‘Lowell Warehouse’. “ 1
Still other cotton made its way to Europe bound for the British port of Liverpool, which served the great textile manufacturing center of Manchester. Also, here is a quote from David William’s, "Rich Man's War, Class, Caste and Confederate Defeat in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley":
"Planters and cotton merchants would sell to anyone, even the Yankees. According to one estimate, more than half a million bales of southern cotton were smuggled North during the war. J.H. Jones and D. Dudley of Fort Gaines reported to Governor Brown in March 1862 that cotton smuggling was common on the lower Chattahoochee. Steamboats typically made their way upriver, loading cotton bales as they went with Columbus their supposed destination. But much of the cotton somehow seemed to find its way to Apalachicola, where it was transferred to vessels that took 'pleasure excursions' out to see the blockading fleet, always returning with empty cargo holds."1
As the war progressed many people of the Chattahoochee Valley feared a Yankee assault up the river. Many people wrote to the Governor asking for arms and assistance for fear of a Yankee raid or slave insurrections.
“Rumors of an impending Yankee assault up the Chattahoochee terrified people in the lower part of the valley, especially planters. Some were sure such an invasion would come. It could only be a matter of time.”1
However Lincoln seemed content in blockading the river at Apalachicola. By late 1862, the Federal blockading fleet had transport up the Chattahoochee locked down. Clearly, smugglers had the contacts to get cotton out of the Confederacy and all levels of the US government were complicit in making this happen. Since the Confederates did not have enough men to man the defenses at Apalachicola, it was abandoned in March of 1862. This increased fear of a Yankee assault upriver.
As economic conditions worsened, many women, children and slaves were moved into non-traditional working roles. Factories making munitions, shoes, textiles and other items now were filled with poor women desperate for money. Despite the Confederacy contracting rates to pay workers, many contractors paid far less than the prescribed amount. Contractors exploited the people’s desperation for money to feed and clothe their families. Some hired on men for reduced wages as they knew that the exemption offered was of even greater value to them. Labor unions were beginning to form in the big cities of the North, but no such unions existed yet in the South and thus the worker had little he or she could do.
“Like slaves, free blacks, and children, women took up much of the slack in the valley’s industrial labor force. The type of work done by individual women depended largely on their class status. Working-class women, both free and slave, held industrial and menial jobs. More affluent women of leisure classes formed ladies aid societies and sewing circles.”1
The societies would sponsor benefit concerts and lotteries. Some people opposed lotteries as gambling, but they remained popular throughout the war. Ladies would also make socks, blankets, woolen coverlets and other items. Some collected or baked food items for the soldiers. Still others would provide needed nursing services, despite many considering this as being too ‘familiar’ with men.
Despite facing destitution and starvation among the poor, the wealthy still managed to provide for themselves. The gap between the poor and wealthy was widening.
“The southern upper classes seemed completely unable to comprehend the magnitude of suffering among plain folk, or perhaps they simply did not care. In any case, they ignored both the misery of the lower classes and the consequences of their own callousness for far too long.”1
“As late as March 1865, only weeks before the war’s end, one woman wrote of a meal at the Cook House in Columbus where the table was so heavy with food that it ‘actually groaned’.”1
There are many similar accounts like this throughout the Chattahoochee Valley. So, despite shortages, starvation and the struggles of the Yeoman class, the rich were still able to live far better than their poor brethren. Planters may have faced blockaded goods, inflation and some sacrificed luxuries they did not face the daily struggle just to stay alive. With their men off at war, and facing starvation, many poor women devolved into begging and in some cases ‘at the cost of their honor’ or even rioting.
“Abandoned and starving, thousands of women became beggars just to keep their families alive. Leaving children at home for days or weeks at a time, they roamed the countryside pleading for food…Some planters gave them what they could, others did not. But even the more generous viewed these unfortunates with contempt. One planter called the starving women ‘perfect nuisances’”. 1
But, the tide turned in the elections of October 1863. The Yeoman class rose up and finally voted in unison under the “Mechanics” and “Workers” Organization. Thus unseating the Pro-Davis incumbents.
“In the five congressional districts of which the lower Chattahoochee Valley are part, only two representatives were reelected.”1
There were also many Unionists across the South. In the Lower Chattahoochee, they were primarily centered in Columbus, GA where most of your Northern craftsmen were transplanted to. Unionists also hid under the guise of “The Peace Society”. To counter this, many towns and cities formed “Vigilance Committees” to have ‘loyalty hearings’ to root out anti-Secessionists.
Further South, in the Wiregrass region of Georgia, it was actually dangerous for CSA agents and pro-Secessionist people to travel there. Courts had been dismissed and Conscription and Impressment were dangerous. In some cases, armed bands of deserters roamed areas in search of disrupting CSA efforts and refusing to return to service.
“As their ranks grew through 1863 some of these stranded groups of deserters formed guerilla bands, described by one historian as ‘no longer committed to the Confederacy, not quite committed to the Union that supplied them arms and supplies, but fully committed to survival.”1
By 1863, slaves were selling as high as $3500. By 1864, prices reached $4700. The war also served to expose more of the cruelties to slaves. Even Planters viewed Slave Traders as men of low character and shunned them when possible. The war forced slaves to also have the stress of filling the work roles of many absent men. Blacks finally began to hear whispers of freedom.
“everybody hoped Master Lincoln would conquer.”1
Anne Maddox – slave at the Gladdy plantation in Opelika
Also with the absence of many men and with the excitement of liberty, the slaves grew considerably insubordinate and obstinate. Some worked little or not all. Some sabotaged work efforts or even roamed in groups at night. Still others even refused to take physical punishment. Many slaves escaped bondage. Many lived in caves along the Chattahoochee River. Many escaped to the Wiregrass and roamed in groups. As with the armed deserters, band of escaped slaves also might raid a town or village. This all led to widespread fears among Planters that a slave rebellion was imminent.
Undermanned patrols or “patter-rollers”, searched counties for escaped slaves. Captured slaves would suffer severe punishments if caught. Although small in number, free blacks were also put under very strict constraints on their movements. Despite all this, many runaway slaves still found work as craftsmen or labor across the South.
Many slaves were able to get to Union lines and enlisted in the Union army. White retribution towards blacks who served the Union could come back during and even after the war ceased. Despite the risks, blacks increasingly tried to escape. Those near the coast had an easier time and escaped in even large groups. But, those inland, like in the Chattahoochee Valley, escape was a bit more difficult and dangerous. Once Sherman’s armies moved through, slave desertion occurred on a mass scale. The loss of Southern labor further crippled the Cause.
So, ends the year 1863. Conditions are forcing many to struggle to survive wars ravages. Its ravages on the home front are as sure as on the battlefield. One can only feel sympathy for the Yeoman of the South during the Civil War. Even for one inclined to side with Secession, one would be pressed to side with its impacts upon the Yeoman caste of the South. The war represents the death of the patriarical, strangle-hold the Planter class had upon Southern Society. The war symbolizes the collapse of the economic, political, religious and familial pillars that supported the social structure that the Planter class had so carefully crafted since 17th century America. But, that structure was held up on the backs of enslaved blacks and poor, Yeoman class whites who held little power or wealth. Ironically, the poor, white Yeomen were the very people that the Planter class called upon to save this structure. One can only empathize with the poor, Southern soldier who gets word of the sufferings of his dear family at home. Add the insult of Planter exemptions from service, lack of produce grown by the Planters, additional taxes on the poor, inflation, shortages, corruption, speculators, starvation, death and maiming of loved ones and it is no wonder the societal columns crumbled. There is no detracting from the sacrifices of the fighting men on the battlefields. But one cannot ignore the societal dynamics that also caused the demise of the Confederacy.
Sources:
1 Williams, David. “Rich Man’s War – Class, Caste and Confederate Defeat in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley”. University of Georgia Press. Athens, GA. 1998.
2 Journal of the Georgia State House 1863. Georgia State Archives. Morrow, GA. 2009
3 Columbus Daily Inquirer. August 1863 to November 1863. Georgia State Archives. Morrow, GA. 2009.
4 Faust, Drew Gilpin. “This Republic of Suffering - Death and the American Civil War”. First Vintage Civil War Library. Random House, NY, NT. 2008.
5 Williams, David. “Bitterly Divided - The South’s Inner Civil War”. New York Press. NY, NY. 2008.
6 Williams, David. “A People’s History of The Civil War – Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom”. New York Press. NY, NY. 2005.
7 Henderson, Lillian. “Roster of Confederate Soldiers of Georgia”. 1861-1865.
by
Jim Butler
It is October, 1863 in a small, rural, working-class town in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley of Georgia. The days of hearts beating to the sounds of war drums is gone. Gone are the lavish suppers and barbeques. Forgotten are the long winded speeches advocating secession from the Union. The call to duty to defend home and hearth is quickly replaced by the cries of the Yeoman dying on the fields of Virginia and Pennsylvania and the pleas of their dear ones at home. Vacant as the call to arms to defend Southern Rights are the vacant bellies of the soldier’s loved ones on their own homestead. Too greedy and craven to fight for their own peculiar institutions, the wealthy, Planter class sends their poor brethren to do their bidding. While some men sit home with exemptions seemingly only procured by those of means, the poor Yeoman must join or be conscripted. Even more overwhelming is the fact that the desire for cotton profits replaces the rational and obvious urgency to grow produce for the people and soldiers protecting the South and her industries. Prior to the war the Yeoman seemed content with their lot in life. Yeomen knew they would never own slaves nor hold political office due to the caste they were born to, yet seemed happy with this status quo. But, now, in late 1863, the Yeoman caste grows weary of fighting, starving and dying for the privileged class of the South. They turn out in droves to vote and cast out the pro-Davis Democrats by a five to one margin. Replacing them with Mechanics and Workers Organization’s candidates. Half of the Confederate army is gone without leave. Inflation, taxes, impressments, conscription, corruption, starvation and death are on the doorsteps of the home front. The war is clearly not just lost on the battlefield, but in the hearts and the minds of its People as well. Setbacks at Gettysburg and Vicksburg seem to sink many hopes, but a recent victory at Chickamauga and siege at Chattanooga is buoying some spirits. But, it seems that this may all be too late as the fate of the South may already be sealed at home and on the battlefield.
Using Stewart County, Georgia as a typical example of a rural, Southern town the Yeoman class consisted of primarily farmers, laborers and mechanics. Laborers included many trades like brick masons, shingle makers, blacksmiths, leather workers, etc. Roughly half the population was black, slaves and less than 1% free blacks. Half of the overall population was children. Only 10% of whites owned slaves. Six households had more than 100 slaves. Less than 4% of the whites owned more than 10 slaves. Sixty percent of the white families owned more than 3 acres. Average Real and Personal property averaged $1979 per person. Poor whites made up close to half the valley’s white population. Wealthy whites controlled high political office mainly by their wealth. Planters used money to buy votes, sometimes known as ‘penning’.
“On the day before the election, campaign workers would round up men off the streets, lodge them in local hotels, get them drunk, and then march them to the polls the next morning. Obviously, these men felt that their right to vote meant very little in elections that primarily represented upper-class interests.”1
But, as Southern power began to consolidate in the hand of a few and the Yeoman class saw that economic advancement was more difficult, cracks began to grow in the scheme of planter dominance. War and caste would play an inevitable role in the struggle for political power during the war.
“Antislavery sentiment never completely died in the South despite efforts to wipe it out. Some whites continued to view slavery as a moral evil, others opposed it on economic grounds, and still others opposed slavery simply because they were too poor ever to own slaves themselves. Whatever the reason, antislavery feeling was on the rise in the late 1850s.”1
Stewart County produced 25,902 bales of cotton in 1860 and had 9 manufacturing establishments employing 44 employees. Soil erosion and a lack of a railroad were already economic hurdles for Stewart County before the war had started. But, cotton was still king and the major driving commodity of the fifth largest cotton producing county in Georgia. The onset of Secession was greeted by some with skepticism while others rushed to the call for glory and Cause. Stewart County quickly raised a company of men for the 2nd Georgia, the “Stewart Grays” who were quickly rushed to Virginia. The county followed with still more volunteers and conscripts as it sent off men to serve with the 17th, Georgia, 21st Georgia, “Stewart Infantry, 31st Georgia, “Bartow Guards”, 46th Georgia, “Zollicoffers’ Guard” and the 3rd Georgia Cavalry, “Rawson’s Rangers” with all but the latter two going to fight in the Army of Northern Virginia. The latter two with the Army of Tennessee.
By Oct 1863, Stewart County had already sent 633 men to war. With 83 (13%) dead from disease, 48 (8%) killed in battle and 74 (12%) wounded or disabled from disease. The missing/deserted numbered 45 (7%), 34 had transferred (5%) and 18 (3%) had been captured. Only 269 (43%) of the men were still fit and active for duty. Conscription was still a problem for most men aged 18-40 years old. Without the means to get an exemption, signing up or become conscripted seemed likely. Conscription agents seemed to have no scruples when it came to even conscripted men not fit to weave baskets while walking by able-bodied men who had exemptions or owned more than twenty slaves. Many resisted Confederate conscription as much as possible. Some deserters even formed armed and mounted bands of partisans. Signing up for State defense also was a way out of CSA conscription. Some men could supply substitutes or even bribe officials for an exemption. Bribing surgeons who are to sign leave papers due to disability, corrupt conscription agents, or local Judges or other officials could all be a way out of military service. However, by late 1863, inflation and demand drove the prices of these exemptions to over $800 or more. A price that most Yeoman could little afford.
Exemptions were extended to key Government officials and war related occupations. Riverboats pilots, telegraph operators and certain skilled industrial workers could receive exemptions. Eventually some jobs, like teamsters, were no longer exempted and slaves began to fill these roles previously held by whites. Exemptions to men holding more than twenty slaves also were exempted. But, this odious law awakened an angry spirit in the poor who resented the twenty-slave law.
Some men avoided military service by getting elected as a county official. Many men fled to Florida behind Union lines. Some even enlisting in the Union Navy. Serving in State service or in a Home Guard unit might also get you an exemption from CSA service. But, most nagging was the twenty slave law which seemed to solidify the tenant of a “Rich Man’s” war.
“to git you pupt up and go to fight for their infurnal negroes and after you do there fighting
you may kiss there hine parts for o they care.”1
An Alabama farmer
Inflation had devalued the currency in rapid fashion. Contracted wages, relief monies and Impressment pay rates did not keep up with inflation and made things more difficult for all. Corn in March of 1862 had sold for $1.10 a bushel and by Oct 1863 it was $5.00 a bushel. Bacon which had sold for .40 a pound in early 1862 was now almost $2.00 a pound by late 1863. Blockaded good like coffee was selling at over $200 a pound by late 1863. Blockaded goods included flour, sugar, spices, coffee, tea, dyes, cotton cards, rum, laudanum and other medicines and textiles. Certain items were in low supply as they were needed for the army. These included leather, salt, hemp and grain for distilled liquor or beer. Despite these impacts on supply, people of means still had ways to procure blockaded items thru speculators who had ties to smugglers.
Inflation coupled with the blockade or the excise of the blockade drove speculation and desperation out of control.
“The Columbus Relief Association wrote to the Confederate secretary of war that ‘heartless extortioners’ were ‘ advancing the prices of all provisions to such rates as to place them beyond the reach of the laboring class and the families of absent soldiers.’”1
Speculators came in many stripes and forms. From men selling inflated, smuggled goods, to men who bought up those goods to drive the prices even higher. From government contractors who cheated on wages, to quartermasters who sold goods meant for the army to the public. From Relief Agents who sold the goods meant for the poor, to Impressment Agents who sold goods meant for the soldiers at the front, there seemed no end to the corruption.
“Those who engaged in profiteering were ‘by far greater enemies to the South and do more to injure her cause than ten time their number of Yankees in the field.’”1
Governor Joe Brown tried to make laws against speculation and also tried to limit profits and prices on certain goods. All too little avail. Goods hoarded by speculators included drugs like chloroform, morphine and quinine. Cotton cards were also a valued item. Fabrics, dyes, leather, coffee, tea, spices, sugar and wheat flour were also in short supply. But, many people became creative and found substitutes for these products. Distillation of liquor was also illegal in the Confederacy, but this prohibition was largely ignored. The biggest problem was when the planters refused to grow foodstuffs. The one thing that was in short supply by this time was new recruits. Half of the army was gone without leave or deserted.
Deserters took several different forms. Some had been wounded or sick on the front and given a ‘sick leave’, but had stayed past their leave by weeks or even months. Some even managed to find ways to bribe officials to extend leaves. A few may actually be on furlough or paroled. Still others just left their post and never returned to service. The Georgia House demanded that local officials, militia and Sheriffs begin to enforce the law and bring in deserters. The State also requested that the Confederate Government reimburse the State for the expense to find and transport deserters. Slaves are to be called on to take over certain skilled positions so as to free up white men to be conscripted. Unproductive Enlistment officers are also to be returned to their regiments.
“ It was not uncommon for deserters and draft dodgers (often called ‘tories’ and ‘lay-outs’_ to band together in remote areas for better protection against those sent to retrieve them. Local sympathizers supplied these men with food and clothing and did what they could to throw pursuers off the track.”1
Many locals were quite open in their support of local deserters. So much so, that CSA Conscription officers found it difficult to do their job in many areas. Men of the Third Georgia Regiment from Stewart County, openly declared they had no intention of returning to the army. In Georgia, loitering deserters had become a problem for the State.
“A person who has travelled over the country to any considerable extent, cannot have failed to
Observe the vast number of persons in the uniform of Confederate officers and soldiers, who crowd
our railroad cars, and fill every hotel on our lines of passage. Many of these persons are believed to
be neglecting duty, and attending to speculation, and other private interests, or pleasure. So who are
not in commission no doubt wear Confederate uniform to enable them to avoid enrollment as conscripts.”2
Journal of the Georgia House – Nov, 5th 1863
There was one clever way to be exempted for some men of Georgia. Jefferson Davis called for each State to call up local men for State defense. Georgia was called upon to produce 8,000 recruits for the task. By the end of 1863, Georgia had over 18,000 men enlisted in militias for local defense. This also allowed for an exemption from Confederate service. Additionally, the State House issued a statement that all State officers were also exempted from State service if so needed at home. Others who were exempted included blacksmiths, millers, tanners, shoemakers, county officials and key industrial workers. The exemption for men with twenty or more slaves was universally met with disdain by the poor Yeoman. The pickings for Confederate conscription officers were growing thin. In the last 6 month of 1863, Stewart County only produced 14 more conscripts for the 2nd GA (2), 21st GA (10) and 46th GA (2). 7
Well, the wages of a Confederate soldier certainly weren’t helping to swell the ranks. The Georgia House did propose a pay raise to make up for the rampant inflation. Officers pay was proposed a 25% increase and enlisted pay for privates was to increase to $22 per month. Still hardly able to keep up with the inflation rate! The cries and pleas from their loved ones were far more pressing than the meager wage or any please of duty or honor to the Cause. Some wives wrote to the Governor of Georgia and pleaded they give their husband an exemption or a transfer to State service. Wives made claims that their husband was the only bread winner and means of support. Still others feared slave rebellions to the point of sheer paranoia. They demanded their husbands be returned home to protect against any insurrection. The suffering of loved ones forced the hand of many a valiant soldier to return home fearing if their loved ones died then what point was life anyways.
“It will not only be necessary to clothe our naked troops while they are in the army, but it is an
imperative duty which the people of Georgia owe it to them, to see that their families do not
suffer for the neccessaries of life, in their absence. While I am no advocate for supporting them in
idleness, and hold that it is the duty of every man, woman and child in the State, able to work, to
labor with all their strength to support themselves and those dependent upon them, I know it is
impossible for a woman, at the present high prices of provisions, to support herself and children,
by her labor. Many of our soldiers who are almost destitute of property, have responded nobly to
their country’s call, and have endured an amount of fatigue, hardship and danger, to which those at
home are strangers, while their wives and children, and the widows and orphans of the slain, have
been supported upon the most scanty allowance, or left to suffer for the necessaries of life. This should
never be so.”2
Journal of the Georgia House – Nov 5th, 1863
The State levied a 10% tax per annum on the people of Georgia to help supply for the relief of the people and for providing for the army in the field. Stewart County levied taxes on personal property at three times the normal rate to help in relief of soldier’s families. In 1863, the Northeast part of the state was hit by very poor crop production due to an early frost. Refugees fleeing to the state also burdened the resources of the state. By this time, Stewart County had 88 widows or children of deceased men, 183 women and 289 children that were dependent upon disabled soldiers or men in service with a total of 731 beneficiaries. Stewart County was issued $21,788 for relief which averaged almost $30 per dependent. Relief agencies issued devalued Confederate currency, food, salt and other supplies. By the end of 1864, half of Georgia’s state budget was being spent of relief efforts.
While Relief Agencies were trying to issue supplies to those in need, Impressment Agents were out seizing goods for the State and for the Confederate armies. Governor Brown called for the people of Georgia to openly resist CSA agents who were impressing goods. However, State agents were still authorized to confiscate goods needed for the army. Tax in Kind collected 10% of all good produced. This included pork, wheat, corn, wool and all other produce and grains. Horses, leather, metals and other items were strictly reserved for military use and could be confiscated at any time. One Impressment Agent was shot by an 80 year old man when he attempted to impress his horse. Many Impressment Agents were unscrupulous speculators who took the Impressed goods and sold them on the black market for their own profit. Still others, pretended to be Impressment Agents and illegally seized goods from the people. The State of Georgia made impersonation of an Impressment Agent a felony. Legitimate Impressment Agents were to post their name and powers granted in three of the most prominent public places or in the newspaper before they could begin Impressments. There are even accounts in the Chattahoochee Valley of armed bands of deserters chasing off Impressment and Conscription Officers.
Conscription Officers were scraping the bottom of the barrel by late 1863. With most able-bodied men of conscription age either already in service or exempted from service, it left few other men to be conscripted. However, this did not stop Conscription Officers from conscripting men who were truly not fit for duty. Epilepsy, cancer, and other ailments did not deter many Conscription Officers from hauling these poor souls off to the war. Kate Cumming tells of one young boy carried off by Conscription Officers while he suffered from a cancer that had already eaten an eye out of its socket. Bribery also carried some weight with many Conscription Officers, if they could pay enough to to keep the Officer happy. In many cases this extortion, and not actual conscription, was the Officers goal.
“Conscription officers were among the most detested men in the South…the popinjays employed as enrolling officers…delight in harassing and putting to expense everybody.”1
John Witner of Troup County in a letter to Gen. Howell Cobb
Impressment Agents also played havoc on the people. Despite offering ‘just compensation’, the people rarely agreed upon the rates as they did not keep up with inflation. Many agents paid in promissory notes that were nearly impossible to use. Many agents were also corrupt and sold goods on the side for their own profits. To make things worse, there were imposter agents who duped their victims out of goods.
“This problem became so bad in Georgia that the General Assembly mandated ten years’ imprisonment for anyone engaged in confiscation without authority to do so. Governor Brown favored an additional punishment of ‘thirty nine lashes on the bare back,’ but the legislature thought imprisonment enough.”1
Although impressments for the State were conducted with the State legislature’s approval, Governor Brown called for open opposition to Confederate Impressment. Opposition to Confederate impressment in some areas grew so widespread that bands of armed deserters would drive off their agents. The poor still felt that impressments were unduly burdening them and that the Planter class was not supplying their fair share.
Cotton was still king during the war and remained profitable throughout the war. So much so, that planters refused to grow foodstuffs to feed the people and soldiers of the South. How ironic that their greed for cotton was dooming the cause for which protected its institutions. The Confederate government made meager attempts to get planters to grow foodstuffs, but these attempts were not enforced regulations and thus largely ignored. The Georgia General Assembly attempted to regulate the production of cotton by imposing a tax on seed. But this did not pass, as most of the Assembly were planters.
“Whether trade, manufacturing, or transportation, most of the valley’s economic activity was directly or indirectly driven by cotton. Rising prices reflected a huge demand for southern cotton. Much of the valley’s cotton made its way to New England textile mills through commission firms like Hall and DeBlois of Columbus. The agency purchased so much cotton for the Lowell mills in Massachusetts that its storage building became known locally as the ‘Lowell Warehouse’. “ 1
Still other cotton made its way to Europe bound for the British port of Liverpool, which served the great textile manufacturing center of Manchester. Also, here is a quote from David William’s, "Rich Man's War, Class, Caste and Confederate Defeat in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley":
"Planters and cotton merchants would sell to anyone, even the Yankees. According to one estimate, more than half a million bales of southern cotton were smuggled North during the war. J.H. Jones and D. Dudley of Fort Gaines reported to Governor Brown in March 1862 that cotton smuggling was common on the lower Chattahoochee. Steamboats typically made their way upriver, loading cotton bales as they went with Columbus their supposed destination. But much of the cotton somehow seemed to find its way to Apalachicola, where it was transferred to vessels that took 'pleasure excursions' out to see the blockading fleet, always returning with empty cargo holds."1
As the war progressed many people of the Chattahoochee Valley feared a Yankee assault up the river. Many people wrote to the Governor asking for arms and assistance for fear of a Yankee raid or slave insurrections.
“Rumors of an impending Yankee assault up the Chattahoochee terrified people in the lower part of the valley, especially planters. Some were sure such an invasion would come. It could only be a matter of time.”1
However Lincoln seemed content in blockading the river at Apalachicola. By late 1862, the Federal blockading fleet had transport up the Chattahoochee locked down. Clearly, smugglers had the contacts to get cotton out of the Confederacy and all levels of the US government were complicit in making this happen. Since the Confederates did not have enough men to man the defenses at Apalachicola, it was abandoned in March of 1862. This increased fear of a Yankee assault upriver.
As economic conditions worsened, many women, children and slaves were moved into non-traditional working roles. Factories making munitions, shoes, textiles and other items now were filled with poor women desperate for money. Despite the Confederacy contracting rates to pay workers, many contractors paid far less than the prescribed amount. Contractors exploited the people’s desperation for money to feed and clothe their families. Some hired on men for reduced wages as they knew that the exemption offered was of even greater value to them. Labor unions were beginning to form in the big cities of the North, but no such unions existed yet in the South and thus the worker had little he or she could do.
“Like slaves, free blacks, and children, women took up much of the slack in the valley’s industrial labor force. The type of work done by individual women depended largely on their class status. Working-class women, both free and slave, held industrial and menial jobs. More affluent women of leisure classes formed ladies aid societies and sewing circles.”1
The societies would sponsor benefit concerts and lotteries. Some people opposed lotteries as gambling, but they remained popular throughout the war. Ladies would also make socks, blankets, woolen coverlets and other items. Some collected or baked food items for the soldiers. Still others would provide needed nursing services, despite many considering this as being too ‘familiar’ with men.
Despite facing destitution and starvation among the poor, the wealthy still managed to provide for themselves. The gap between the poor and wealthy was widening.
“The southern upper classes seemed completely unable to comprehend the magnitude of suffering among plain folk, or perhaps they simply did not care. In any case, they ignored both the misery of the lower classes and the consequences of their own callousness for far too long.”1
“As late as March 1865, only weeks before the war’s end, one woman wrote of a meal at the Cook House in Columbus where the table was so heavy with food that it ‘actually groaned’.”1
There are many similar accounts like this throughout the Chattahoochee Valley. So, despite shortages, starvation and the struggles of the Yeoman class, the rich were still able to live far better than their poor brethren. Planters may have faced blockaded goods, inflation and some sacrificed luxuries they did not face the daily struggle just to stay alive. With their men off at war, and facing starvation, many poor women devolved into begging and in some cases ‘at the cost of their honor’ or even rioting.
“Abandoned and starving, thousands of women became beggars just to keep their families alive. Leaving children at home for days or weeks at a time, they roamed the countryside pleading for food…Some planters gave them what they could, others did not. But even the more generous viewed these unfortunates with contempt. One planter called the starving women ‘perfect nuisances’”. 1
But, the tide turned in the elections of October 1863. The Yeoman class rose up and finally voted in unison under the “Mechanics” and “Workers” Organization. Thus unseating the Pro-Davis incumbents.
“In the five congressional districts of which the lower Chattahoochee Valley are part, only two representatives were reelected.”1
There were also many Unionists across the South. In the Lower Chattahoochee, they were primarily centered in Columbus, GA where most of your Northern craftsmen were transplanted to. Unionists also hid under the guise of “The Peace Society”. To counter this, many towns and cities formed “Vigilance Committees” to have ‘loyalty hearings’ to root out anti-Secessionists.
Further South, in the Wiregrass region of Georgia, it was actually dangerous for CSA agents and pro-Secessionist people to travel there. Courts had been dismissed and Conscription and Impressment were dangerous. In some cases, armed bands of deserters roamed areas in search of disrupting CSA efforts and refusing to return to service.
“As their ranks grew through 1863 some of these stranded groups of deserters formed guerilla bands, described by one historian as ‘no longer committed to the Confederacy, not quite committed to the Union that supplied them arms and supplies, but fully committed to survival.”1
By 1863, slaves were selling as high as $3500. By 1864, prices reached $4700. The war also served to expose more of the cruelties to slaves. Even Planters viewed Slave Traders as men of low character and shunned them when possible. The war forced slaves to also have the stress of filling the work roles of many absent men. Blacks finally began to hear whispers of freedom.
“everybody hoped Master Lincoln would conquer.”1
Anne Maddox – slave at the Gladdy plantation in Opelika
Also with the absence of many men and with the excitement of liberty, the slaves grew considerably insubordinate and obstinate. Some worked little or not all. Some sabotaged work efforts or even roamed in groups at night. Still others even refused to take physical punishment. Many slaves escaped bondage. Many lived in caves along the Chattahoochee River. Many escaped to the Wiregrass and roamed in groups. As with the armed deserters, band of escaped slaves also might raid a town or village. This all led to widespread fears among Planters that a slave rebellion was imminent.
Undermanned patrols or “patter-rollers”, searched counties for escaped slaves. Captured slaves would suffer severe punishments if caught. Although small in number, free blacks were also put under very strict constraints on their movements. Despite all this, many runaway slaves still found work as craftsmen or labor across the South.
Many slaves were able to get to Union lines and enlisted in the Union army. White retribution towards blacks who served the Union could come back during and even after the war ceased. Despite the risks, blacks increasingly tried to escape. Those near the coast had an easier time and escaped in even large groups. But, those inland, like in the Chattahoochee Valley, escape was a bit more difficult and dangerous. Once Sherman’s armies moved through, slave desertion occurred on a mass scale. The loss of Southern labor further crippled the Cause.
So, ends the year 1863. Conditions are forcing many to struggle to survive wars ravages. Its ravages on the home front are as sure as on the battlefield. One can only feel sympathy for the Yeoman of the South during the Civil War. Even for one inclined to side with Secession, one would be pressed to side with its impacts upon the Yeoman caste of the South. The war represents the death of the patriarical, strangle-hold the Planter class had upon Southern Society. The war symbolizes the collapse of the economic, political, religious and familial pillars that supported the social structure that the Planter class had so carefully crafted since 17th century America. But, that structure was held up on the backs of enslaved blacks and poor, Yeoman class whites who held little power or wealth. Ironically, the poor, white Yeomen were the very people that the Planter class called upon to save this structure. One can only empathize with the poor, Southern soldier who gets word of the sufferings of his dear family at home. Add the insult of Planter exemptions from service, lack of produce grown by the Planters, additional taxes on the poor, inflation, shortages, corruption, speculators, starvation, death and maiming of loved ones and it is no wonder the societal columns crumbled. There is no detracting from the sacrifices of the fighting men on the battlefields. But one cannot ignore the societal dynamics that also caused the demise of the Confederacy.
Sources:
1 Williams, David. “Rich Man’s War – Class, Caste and Confederate Defeat in the Lower Chattahoochee Valley”. University of Georgia Press. Athens, GA. 1998.
2 Journal of the Georgia State House 1863. Georgia State Archives. Morrow, GA. 2009
3 Columbus Daily Inquirer. August 1863 to November 1863. Georgia State Archives. Morrow, GA. 2009.
4 Faust, Drew Gilpin. “This Republic of Suffering - Death and the American Civil War”. First Vintage Civil War Library. Random House, NY, NT. 2008.
5 Williams, David. “Bitterly Divided - The South’s Inner Civil War”. New York Press. NY, NY. 2008.
6 Williams, David. “A People’s History of The Civil War – Struggles for the Meaning of Freedom”. New York Press. NY, NY. 2005.
7 Henderson, Lillian. “Roster of Confederate Soldiers of Georgia”. 1861-1865.